The Global Market for Bio- and CO2- based Plastics and Polymers

1              RESEARCH METHODOLOGY         39

2              BIO-BASED CHEMICALS AND FEEDSTOCKS             40

• 2.1          Types    40
• 2.2          Production capacities     41
• 2.3          Bio-based adipic acid      42
  • 2.3.1      Applications and production       43
• 2.4          11-Aminoundecanoic acid (11-AA)            43
  • 2.4.1      Applications and production       44
• 2.5          1,4-Butanediol (1,4-BDO)              45
  • 2.5.1      Applications and production       45
• 2.6          Dodecanedioic acid (DDDA)         46
  • 2.6.1      Applications and production       47
• 2.7          Epichlorohydrin (ECH)    48
  • 2.7.1      Applications and production       48
• 2.8          Ethylene              48
  • 2.8.1      Applications and production       49
• 2.9          Furfural 49
  • 2.9.1      Applications and production       50
• 2.10        5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) 50
  • 2.10.1    Applications and production       51
• 2.11        5-Chloromethylfurfural (5-CMF) 51
  • 2.11.1    Applications and production       51
• 2.12        2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid (2,5-FDCA)     51
  • 2.12.1    Applications and production       52
• 2.13        Furandicarboxylic methyl ester (FDME)  52
• 2.14        Isosorbide           52
  • 2.14.1    Applications and production       53
• 2.15        Itaconic acid       53
  • 2.15.1    Applications and production       53
• 2.16        3-Hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) 53
  • 2.16.1    Applications and production       54
• 2.17        5 Hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) 55
  • 2.17.1    Applications and production       55
• 2.18        Lactic acid (D-LA)             55
  • 2.18.1    Applications and production       56
• 2.19        Lactic acid – L-lactic acid (L-LA)   56
  • 2.19.1    Applications and production       56
• 2.20        Lactide  57
  • 2.20.1    Applications and production       58
• 2.21        Levoglucosenone             59
  • 2.21.1    Applications and production       59
• 2.22        Levulinic acid      60
  • 2.22.1    Applications and production       60
• 2.23        Monoethylene glycol (MEG)       60
  • 2.23.1    Applications and production       60
• 2.24        Monopropylene glycol (MPG)    61
  • 2.24.1    Applications and production       62
• 2.25        Muconic acid      62
  • 2.25.1    Applications and production       63
• 2.26        Bio-Naphtha      63
  • 2.26.1    Applications and production       64
  • 2.26.2    Production capacities     64
  • 2.26.3    Bio-naptha producers    65
• 2.27        Pentamethylene diisocyanate    66
  • 2.27.1    Applications and production       67
• 2.28        1,3-Propanediol (1,3-PDO)           67
  • 2.28.1    Applications and production       67
• 2.29        Sebacic acid        68
  • 2.29.1    Applications and production       69
• 2.30        Succinic acid (SA)             69
  • 2.30.1    Applications and production       70

3              BIO-BASED PLASTICS AND POLYMERS   71

• 3.1          Bio-based or renewable plastics 71
  • 3.1.1      Drop-in bio-based plastics            71
  • 3.1.2      Novel bio-based plastics                72
• 3.2          Biodegradable and compostable plastics                73
  • 3.2.1      Biodegradability               73
  • 3.2.2      Compostability  74
• 3.3          Advantages and disadvantages  75
• 3.4          Types of Bio-based and/or Biodegradable Plastics              75
• 3.5          Market leaders by biobased and/or biodegradable plastic types  77
• 3.6          Synthetic bio-based polymers    78
  • 3.6.1      Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 78
    • 3.6.1.1   Market analysis 79
    • 3.6.1.2   Production          80
    • 3.6.1.3   Producers and production capacities, current and planned            80
      • 3.6.1.3.1               Lactic acid producers and production capacities  80
      • 3.6.1.3.2               PLA producers and production capacities               81
      • 3.6.1.3.3               Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)     82
  • 3.6.2      Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET)     83
    • 3.6.2.1   Market analysis 83
    • 3.6.2.2   Producers and production capacities       84
    • 3.6.2.3   Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)          85
  • 3.6.3      Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT)             86
    • 3.6.3.1   Market analysis 86
    • 3.6.3.2   Producers and production capacities       87
    • 3.6.3.3   Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)          87
  • 3.6.4      Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF)             88
    • 3.6.4.1   Market analysis 89
    • 3.6.4.2   Comparative properties to PET   90
    • 3.6.4.3   Producers and production capacities       91
      • 3.6.4.3.1               FDCA and PEF producers and production capacities           91
      • 3.6.4.3.2               Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 91
  • 3.6.5      Polyamides (Bio-PA)       92
    • 3.6.5.1   Market analysis 93
    • 3.6.5.2   Producers and production capacities       94
    • 3.6.5.3   Polyamides (Bio-PA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)            94
  • 3.6.6      Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT)        95
    • 3.6.6.1   Market analysis 95
    • 3.6.6.2   Producers and production capacities       96
    • 3.6.6.3   Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)             97
  • 3.6.7      Polybutylene succinate (PBS) and copolymers     98
    • 3.6.7.1   Market analysis 98
    • 3.6.7.2   Producers and production capacities       99
    • 3.6.7.3   Polybutylene succinate (PBS) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)           99
  • 3.6.8      Polyethylene (Bio-PE)    100
    • 3.6.8.1   Market analysis 100
    • 3.6.8.2   Producers and production capacities       101
    • 3.6.8.3   Polyethylene (Bio-PE) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).        101
  • 3.6.9      Polypropylene (Bio-PP) 102
  • 3.6.9.1   Market analysis 102
  • 3.6.9.2   Producers and production capacities       103
  • 3.6.9.3   Polypropylene (Bio-PP) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)      103
• 3.7          Natural bio-based polymers        104
  • 3.7.1      Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)     105
    • 3.7.1.1   Technology description 105
    • 3.7.1.2   Types    107
      • 3.7.1.2.1               PHB        109
      • 3.7.1.2.2               PHBV     109
    • 3.7.1.3   Synthesis and production processes        111
    • 3.7.1.4   Market analysis 113
    • 3.7.1.5   Commercially available PHAs      115
    • 3.7.1.6   Markets for PHAs             116
      • 3.7.1.6.1               Packaging            117
      • 3.7.1.6.2               Cosmetics           119
        • 3.7.1.6.2.1           PHA microspheres           119
      • 3.7.1.6.3               Medical 119
        • 3.7.1.6.3.1           Tissue engineering          119
        • 3.7.1.6.3.2           Drug delivery     120
      • 3.7.1.6.4               Agriculture          120
        • 3.7.1.6.4.1           Mulch film           120
        • 3.7.1.6.4.2           Grow bags           120
    • 3.7.1.7   Producers and production capacities       121
    • 3.7.1.8   PHA production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)            122
  • 3.7.2      Polysaccharides 123
    • 3.7.2.1   Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 123
      • 3.7.2.1.1               Market analysis 124
      • 3.7.2.1.2               Producers and production capacities       124
    • 3.7.2.2   Nanocellulose   125
      • 3.7.2.2.1               Cellulose nanocrystals    125
        • 3.7.2.2.1.1           Synthesis             126
        • 3.7.2.2.1.2           Properties           127
        • 3.7.2.2.1.3           Production          129
        • 3.7.2.2.1.4           Applications       129
        • 3.7.2.2.1.5           Market analysis 130
        • 3.7.2.2.1.6           Producers and production capacities       131
    • 3.7.2.2.2               Cellulose nanofibers       132
      • 3.7.2.2.2.1           Applications       133
      • 3.7.2.2.2.2           Market analysis 134
      • 3.7.2.2.2.3           Producers and production capacities       135
    • 3.7.2.2.3               Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC)    136
      • 3.7.2.2.3.1           Production          136
      • 3.7.2.2.3.2           Applications       139
  • 3.7.3      Protein-based bioplastics             140
    • 3.7.3.1   Types, applications and producers            140
  • 3.7.4      Algal and fungal 142
    • 3.7.4.1   Algal      142
      • 3.7.4.1.1               Advantages        142
      • 3.7.4.1.2               Production          144
      • 3.7.4.1.3               Producers           144
    • 3.7.4.2   Mycelium            144
      • 3.7.4.2.1               Properties           144
      • 3.7.4.2.2               Applications       145
      • 3.7.4.2.3               Commercialization           147
  • 3.7.5      Chitosan              147
    • 3.7.5.1   Technology description 147
• 3.8          Production of bio-based and biodegradable plastics, by region     148
  • 3.8.1      North America   149
  • 3.8.2      Europe 150
  • 3.8.3      Asia-Pacific         151
    • 3.8.3.1   China     151
    • 3.8.3.2   Japan    151
    • 3.8.3.3   Thailand               151
    • 3.8.3.4   Indonesia            151
  • 3.8.4      Latin America    152
• 3.9          Markets for bio-based plastic      153
  • 3.9.1      Packaging            154
    • 3.9.1.1   Processes for bioplastics in packaging      154
    • 3.9.1.2   Applications       155
    • 3.9.1.3   Flexible packaging            155
      • 3.9.1.3.1               Production volumes 2019-2033   157
    • 3.9.1.4   Rigid packaging 158
      • 3.9.1.4.1               Production volumes 2019-2033   159
  • 3.9.2      Consumer products        160
    • 3.9.2.1   Applications       161
  • 3.9.3      Automotive        161
    • 3.9.3.1   Applications       162
    • 3.9.3.2   Production capacities     162
  • 3.9.4      Building & construction 162
    • 3.9.4.1   Applications       162
    • 3.9.4.2   Production capacities     163
  • 3.9.5      Textiles 163
    • 3.9.5.1   Apparel 164
    • 3.9.5.2   Footwear            165
    • 3.9.5.3   Medical textiles 166
    • 3.9.5.4   Production capacities     167
  • 3.9.6      Electronics          167
    • 3.9.6.1   Applications       167
    • 3.9.6.2   Production capacities     168
  • 3.9.7      Agriculture and horticulture        168
    • 3.9.7.1   Production capacities     169
• 3.10        Natural fibers    171
  • 3.10.1    Manufacturing method, matrix materials and applications of natural fibers            174
  • 3.10.2    Advantages of natural fibers       175
  • 3.10.3    Commercially available next-gen natural fiber  products 176
  • 3.10.4    Market drivers for next-gen natural fibers             179
  • 3.10.5    Challenges          181
  • 3.10.6    Plants (cellulose, lignocellulose) 182
    • 3.10.6.1                Seed fibers         182
      • 3.10.6.1.1             Cotton  182
        • 3.10.6.1.1.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   183
      • 3.10.6.1.2             Kapok   183
        • 3.10.6.1.2.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   184
      • 3.10.6.1.3             Luffa      185
    • 3.10.6.2                Bast fibers           185
      • 3.10.6.2.1             Jute       186
      • 3.10.6.2.2             Production volumes 2018-2033   187
        • 3.10.6.2.2.1         Hemp    187
          • 3.10.6.2.2.2         Production volumes 2018-2033   188
      • 3.10.6.2.3             Flax        189
        • 3.10.6.2.3.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   190
      • 3.10.6.2.4             Ramie   190
        • 3.10.6.2.4.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   191
      • 3.10.6.2.5             Kenaf    192
        • 3.10.6.2.5.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   193
  • 3.10.6.3                Leaf fibers           193
    • 3.10.6.3.1             Sisal       194
      • 3.10.6.3.1.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   194
    • 3.10.6.3.2             Abaca    195
      • 3.10.6.3.2.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   196
  • 3.10.6.4                Fruit fibers          196
    • 3.10.6.4.1             Coir        196
      • 3.10.6.4.1.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   197
    • 3.10.6.4.2             Banana 198
      • 3.10.6.4.2.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   199
    • 3.10.6.4.3             Pineapple            200
  • 3.10.6.5                Stalk fibers from agricultural residues     201
    • 3.10.6.5.1             Rice fiber             201
    • 3.10.6.5.2             Corn      202
  • 3.10.6.6                Cane, grasses and reed  202
    • 3.10.6.6.1             Switch grass       202
    • 3.10.6.6.2             Sugarcane (agricultural residues)              203
    • 3.10.6.6.3             Bamboo               204
      • 3.10.6.6.3.1         Production volumes 2018-2033   204
    • 3.10.6.6.4             Fresh grass (green biorefinery)  205
  • 3.10.6.7                Modified natural polymers          205
    • 3.10.6.7.1             Mycelium            205
    • 3.10.6.7.2             Chitosan              208
    • 3.10.6.7.3             Alginate               209
  • 3.10.7    Animal (fibrous protein) 211
    • 3.10.7.1                Wool     211
      • 3.10.7.1.1             Alternative wool materials           212
      • 3.10.7.1.2             Producers           212
    • 3.10.7.2                Silk fiber              212
    • 3.10.7.2.1             Alternative silk materials               213
      • 3.10.7.2.1.1         Producers           213
    • 3.10.7.3                Leather 213
      • 3.10.7.3.1             Alternative leather materials       214
        • 3.10.7.3.1.1         Producers           214
    • 3.10.7.4                Fur         216
      • 3.10.7.4.1             Producers           216
    • 3.10.7.5                Down    216
      • 3.10.7.5.1             Alternative down materials          216
        • 3.10.7.5.1.1         Producers           216
  • 3.10.8    Natural fiber polymer composites and plastics     217
    • 3.10.8.1                Applications       217
    • 3.10.8.2                Natural fiber injection moulding compounds       218
      • 3.10.8.2.1             Properties           219
      • 3.10.8.2.2             Applications       219
    • 3.10.8.3                Non-woven natural fiber mat composites              219
      • 3.10.8.3.1             Automotive        219
      • 3.10.8.3.2             Applications       220
    • 3.10.8.4                Aligned natural fiber-reinforced composites        220
    • 3.10.8.5                Natural fiber biobased polymer compounds         221
    • 3.10.8.6                Natural fiber biobased polymer non-woven mats              222
      • 3.10.8.6.1             Flax        222
      • 3.10.8.6.2             Kenaf    222
    • 3.10.8.7                Natural fiber thermoset bioresin composites       222
    • 3.10.8.8                Aerospace          223
      • 3.10.8.8.1             Market overview             223
    • 3.10.8.9                Automotive        223
      • 3.10.8.9.1             Market overview             223
      • 3.10.8.9.2             Applications of natural fibers      228
    • 3.10.8.10              Sports and leisure            229
      • 3.10.8.10.1          Market overview             229
    • 3.10.8.11              Packaging            229
      • 3.10.8.11.1          Market overview             230
  • 3.10.9    Global production of natural fibers           232
    • 3.10.9.1                Overall global fibers market        232
    • 3.10.9.2                Plant-based fiber production      234
    • 3.10.9.3                Animal-based natural fiber production   235
• 3.11        Lignin    236
  • 3.11.1    Introduciton       236
    • 3.11.1.1                What is lignin?   236
      • 3.11.1.1.1             Lignin structure 237
    • 3.11.1.2                Types of lignin    237
      • 3.11.1.2.1             Sulfur containing lignin  240
      • 3.11.1.2.2             Sulfur-free lignin from biorefinery process            240
    • 3.11.1.3                Properties           241
    • 3.11.1.4                The lignocellulose biorefinery     243
    • 3.11.1.5                Markets and applications              244
    • 3.11.1.6                Challenges for using lignin            245
  • 3.11.2    Lignin production processes        245
    • 3.11.2.1                Lignosulphonates            247
    • 3.11.2.2                Kraft Lignin          248
      • 3.11.2.2.1             LignoBoost process         248
      • 3.11.2.2.2             LignoForce method         249
      • 3.11.2.2.3             Sequential Liquid Lignin Recovery and Purification             250
      • 3.11.2.2.4             A-Recovery+      250
    • 3.11.2.3                Soda lignin          251
    • 3.11.2.4                Biorefinery lignin              252
      • 3.11.2.4.1             Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and  processes    253
    • 3.11.2.5                Organosolv lignins            255
    • 3.11.2.6                Hydrolytic lignin                255
  • 3.11.3    Markets for lignin    256
    • 3.11.3.1                Market drivers and trends for lignin         256
    • 3.11.3.2                Production capacities     257
      • 3.11.3.2.1             Technical lignin availability (dry ton/y)    257
      • 3.11.3.2.2             Biomass conversion (Biorefinery)             258
    • 3.11.3.3                Estimated consumption of lignin                258
    • 3.11.3.4                Prices    260
    • 3.11.3.5                Aromatic compounds     260
      • 3.11.3.5.1             Benzene, toluene and xylene      261
      • 3.11.3.5.2             Phenol and phenolic resins          261
      • 3.11.3.5.3             Vanillin 262
    • 3.11.3.6                Lignin-based plastics and polymers          262
      • 3.11.3.6.1             Lignin-based thermoplastics        263
      • 3.11.3.6.2             Lignin-based thermosets              264
      • 3.11.3.6.3             Epoxy resins       265
      • 3.11.3.6.4             Packaging board               266
      • 3.11.3.6.5             MDF and plywood           267
      • 3.11.3.6.6             Polyurethanes (PU) and foams   268
      • 3.11.3.6.7             Carbon materials              269
      • 3.11.3.6.8             Carbon fiber       269
      • 3.11.3.6.9             Automotive composites 271
      • 3.11.3.6.10          Fire retardants  271
• 3.12        Bio-based polymers company profiles     272 (492 company profiles)

4              CARBON (CO2) CAPTURE AND UTILIZATION FOR POLYMERS          679

• 4.1          Main sources of carbon dioxide emissions             679
• 4.2          CO2 as a commodity       680
• 4.3          Meeting climate targets 682
• 4.4          Market drivers and trends            683
• 4.5          The current market and future outlook  684
• 4.6          CCUS Industry developments 2020-2023                685
• 4.7          CCUS investments           690
  • 4.7.1      Venture Capital Funding                690
• 4.8          Market map       691
• 4.9          Commercial CCUS facilities and projects 692
  • 4.9.1      Facilities               694
    • 4.9.1.1   Operational        694
    • 4.9.1.2   Under development/construction            696
• 4.10        CCUS Value Chain             702
• 4.11        Key market barriers for CCUS      703
• 4.12        Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) technologies       704
  • 4.12.1    Carbon Capture 709
    • 4.12.1.1                Source Characterization 709
    • 4.12.1.2                Purification         710
    • 4.12.1.3                CO2 capture technologies            711
  • 4.12.2    Carbon Utilization            714
    • 4.12.2.1                CO2 utilization pathways              715
  • 4.12.3    Carbon storage 716
    • 4.12.3.1                Passive storage 716
    • 4.12.3.2                Enhanced oil recovery   717
• 4.13        Products from CO2 capture         718
  • 4.13.1    Current market status    718
  • 4.13.2    Benefits of carbon utilization       722
  • 4.13.3    Market challenges           724
  • 4.13.4    Co2 utilization pathways               725
  • 4.13.5    Conversion processes    728
    • 4.13.5.1                Thermochemical              728
      • 4.13.5.1.1             Process overview             728
      • 4.13.5.1.2             Plasma-assisted CO2 conversion 731
    • 4.13.5.2                Electrochemical conversion of CO2           732
      • 4.13.5.2.1             Process overview             733
    • 4.13.5.3                Photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic conversion of CO2       735
    • 4.13.5.4                Catalytic conversion of CO2         735
    • 4.13.5.5                Biological conversion of CO2       736
    • 4.13.5.6                Copolymerization of CO2              740
    • 4.13.5.7                Mineral carbonation       741
  • 4.13.6    CO₂-derived polymers   745
    • 4.13.6.1                CO2 for the development of polymer materials  746
    • 4.13.6.2                Polycarbonate from CO₂                746
    • 4.13.6.3                Scalability            747
    • 4.13.6.4                Carbon nanotubes as by- products of CO2 conversion and sequestration 748
• 4.14        CO2-derived polymer producer profiles 750 (30 company profiles)

5              REFERENCES       774

List of Tables

• Table 1. List of Bio-based chemicals.        40
• Table 2. Lactide applications.      58
• Table 3. Biobased MEG producers capacities.       61
• Table 4. Bio-naphtha market value chain.              63
• Table 5. Bio-naptha producers and production capacities.              65
• Table 6. Type of biodegradation.               74
• Table 7. Advantages and disadvantages of biobased plastics compared to conventional plastics.   75
• Table 8. Types of Bio-based and/or Biodegradable Plastics, applications. 76
• Table 9. Market leader by Bio-based and/or Biodegradable Plastic types. 77
• Table 10. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.               79
• Table 11. Lactic acid producers and production capacities.             80
• Table 12. PLA producers and production capacities.          81
• Table 13. Planned PLA capacity expansions in China.         81
• Table 14. Bio-based Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.              83
• Table 15. Bio-based Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) producers and production capacities,           84
• Table 16. Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.       87
• Table 17. Production capacities of Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT), by leading producers.   87
• Table 18. Polyethylene furanoate (PEF) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.                89
• Table 19. PEF vs. PET.     90
• Table 20. FDCA and PEF producers.          91
• Table 21. Bio-based polyamides (Bio-PA) market analysis - manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.                93
• Table 22. Leading Bio-PA producers production capacities.            94
• Table 23. Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.              95
• Table 24. Leading PBAT producers, production capacities and brands.      96
• Table 25. Bio-PBS market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.       98
• Table 26. Leading PBS producers and production capacities.          99
• Table 27. Bio-based Polyethylene (Bio-PE) market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.                100
• Table 28. Leading Bio-PE producers.        101
• Table 29. Bio-PP market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.        103
• Table 30. Leading Bio-PP producers and capacities.           103
• Table 31.Types of PHAs and properties. 108
• Table 32. Comparison of the physical properties of different PHAs with conventional petroleum-based polymers. 110
• Table 33. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) extraction methods.          112
• Table 34. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) market analysis. 114
• Table 35. Commercially available PHAs.  115
• Table 36. Markets and applications for PHAs.       116
• Table 37. Applications, advantages and disadvantages of PHAs in packaging.         118
• Table 38. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) producers.           121
• Table 39. Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications.                124
• Table 40. Leading MFC producers and capacities.               124
• Table 41. Synthesis methods for cellulose nanocrystals (CNC).     126
• Table 42. CNC sources, size and yield.      127
• Table 43. CNC properties.             128
• Table 44. Mechanical properties of CNC and other reinforcement materials.         128
• Table 45. Applications of nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC).               129
• Table 46. Cellulose nanocrystals analysis.               130
• Table 47: Cellulose nanocrystal production capacities and production process, by producer.          132
• Table 48. Applications of cellulose nanofibers (CNF).        133
• Table 49. Cellulose nanofibers market analysis.   134
• Table 50. CNF production capacities (by type, wet or dry) and production process, by producer, metric tonnes.    135
• Table 51. Applications of bacterial nanocellulose (BNC). 139
• Table 52. Types of protein based-bioplastics, applications and companies.             140
• Table 53. Types of algal and fungal based-bioplastics, applications and companies.             142
• Table 54. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size.          142
• Table 55. Companies developing algal-based bioplastics. 144
• Table 56. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.          144
• Table 57. Companies developing mycelium-based bioplastics.      147
• Table 58. Overview of chitosan-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.         147
• Table 59. Global production capacities of biobased and sustainable plastics in 2019-2033, by region, tons.              148
• Table 60. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in North America. 150
• Table 61. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in Europe.               150
• Table 62. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in Asia-Pacific.       151
• Table 63. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in Latin America.  152
• Table 64. Processes for bioplastics in packaging. 154
• Table 65. Comparison of bioplastics’ (PLA and PHAs) properties to other common polymers used in product packaging.                156
• Table 66. Typical applications for bioplastics in flexible packaging.              157
• Table 67. Typical applications for bioplastics in rigid packaging.   159
• Table 68. Types of next-gen natural fibers.            171
• Table 69. Application, manufacturing method, and matrix materials of natural fibers.        174
• Table 70. Typical properties of natural fibers.      176
• Table 71. Commercially available next-gen natural fiber products.              176
• Table 72. Market drivers for natural fibers.           180
• Table 73. Overview of cotton fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 182
• Table 74. Overview of kapok fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 183
• Table 75. Overview of luffa fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.    185
• Table 76. Overview of jute fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.     186
• Table 77. Overview of hemp fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.  187
• Table 78. Overview of flax fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.      189
• Table 79. Overview of ramie fibers- description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 190
• Table 80. Overview of kenaf fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.  192
• Table 81. Overview of sisal leaf fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.            194
• Table 82. Overview of abaca fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.  195
• Table 83. Overview of coir fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.      197
• Table 84. Overview of banana fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.               198
• Table 85. Overview of pineapple fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.         200
• Table 86. Overview of rice fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.      201
• Table 87. Overview of corn fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.    202
• Table 88. Overview of switch grass fibers-description, properties and applications.             203
• Table 89. Overview of sugarcane fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and application and market size.           203
• Table 90. Overview of bamboo fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.             204
• Table 91. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.          208
• Table 92. Overview of chitosan fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.            209
• Table 93. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size.          210
• Table 94. Overview of wool fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications.   211
• Table 95. Alternative wool materials producers. 212
• Table 96. Overview of silk fibers-description, properties, application and market size.       212
• Table 97. Alternative silk materials producers.    213
• Table 98. Alternative leather materials producers.            214
• Table 99. Next-gen fur producers.            216
• Table 100. Alternative down materials producers.             216
• Table 101. Applications of natural fiber composites.         217
• Table 102. Typical properties of short natural fiber-thermoplastic composites.     219
• Table 103. Properties of non-woven natural fiber mat composites.            220
• Table 104. Properties of aligned natural fiber composites.             221
• Table 105. Properties of natural fiber-bio-based polymer compounds.     221
• Table 106. Properties of natural fiber-bio-based polymer non-woven mats.           222
• Table 107. Natural fibers in the aerospace sector-market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 223
• Table 108. Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite in the automotive market.             225
• Table 109. Natural fibers in the aerospace sector- market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 226
• Table 110. Applications of natural fibers in the automotive industry.         228
• Table 111. Natural fibers in the sports and leisure sector-market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use.  229
• Table 112. Natural fibers in the packaging sector-market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 230
• Table 113. Technical lignin types and applications.             238
• Table 114. Classification of technical lignins.         240
• Table 115. Lignin content of selected biomass.   241
• Table 116. Properties of lignins and their applications.     242
• Table 117. Example markets and applications for lignin.  244
• Table 118. Processes for lignin production.           246
• Table 119. Biorefinery feedstocks.           252
• Table 120. Comparison of pulping and biorefinery lignins.              252
• Table 121. Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and  processes              253
• Table 122. Market drivers and trends for lignin.  257
• Table 123. Production capacities of technical lignin producers.    258
• Table 124. Production capacities of biorefinery lignin producers. 258
• Table 125. Estimated consumption of lignin, 2019-2033 (000 MT).             259
• Table 126. Prices of benzene, toluene, xylene and their derivatives.          261
• Table 127. Application of lignin in plastics and polymers. 262
• Table 128. Lactips plastic pellets.              476
• Table 129. Oji Holdings CNF products.     547
• Table 130. Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) market drivers and trends.      683
• Table 131. Carbon capture, usage, and storage (CCUS) industry developments 2020-2023.              685
• Table 132. Global commercial CCUS facilities-in operation.            694
• Table 133. Global commercial CCUS facilities-under development/construction.  696
• Table 134. Key market barriers for CCUS.               703
• Table 135. CO2 utilization and removal pathways              706
• Table 136. Approaches for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from point sources.    709
• Table 137. CO2 capture technologies.     711
• Table 138. Advantages and challenges of carbon capture technologies.   712
• Table 139. Overview of commercial materials and processes utilized in carbon capture.   713
• Table 140. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$). 722
• Table 141. CO2 utilization and removal pathways.             722
• Table 142. Market challenges for CO2 utilization.               724
• Table 143. Example CO2 utilization pathways.     725
• Table 144. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.    728
• Table 145. Electrochemical CO₂ reduction products.         732
• Table 146. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.      733
• Table 147. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.  737
• Table 148. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers.   740
• Table 149. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies.       744
• Table 150. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2.        747

List of Figures

• Figure 1. Bio-based chemicals and feedstocks production capacities, 2018-2033.  42
• Figure 2. Overview of Toray process. Overview of process             43
• Figure 3. Production capacities for 11-Aminoundecanoic acid (11-AA).     44
• Figure 4. 1,4-Butanediol (BDO) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).            46
• Figure 5. Dodecanedioic acid (DDDA) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 47
• Figure 6. Epichlorohydrin production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).      48
• Figure 7. Ethylene production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).     49
• Figure 8. Potential industrial uses of 3-hydroxypropanoic acid.     54
• Figure 9. L-lactic acid (L-LA) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).  57
• Figure 10. Lactide production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).     59
• Figure 11. Bio-MEG production capacities, 2018-2033.      61
• Figure 12. Bio-MPG production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).  62
• Figure 13. Biobased naphtha production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 65
• Figure 14. 1,3-Propanediol (1,3-PDO) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 68
• Figure 15. Sebacic acid production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes).           69
• Figure 16.  Coca-Cola PlantBottle®.           72
• Figure 17. Interrelationship between conventional, bio-based and biodegradable plastics.              73
• Figure 18. Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).              83
• Figure 19. Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons)     86
• Figure 20. Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).   88
• Figure 21. Production capacities of Polyethylene furanoate (PEF) to 2025.               91
• Figure 22. Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).            92
• Figure 23. Polyamides (Bio-PA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).      95
• Figure 24. Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).       97
• Figure 25. Polybutylene succinate (PBS) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).    100
• Figure 26. Polyethylene (Bio-PE) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).   102
• Figure 27. Polypropylene (Bio-PP) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 104
• Figure 28. PHA family.    108
• Figure 29. PHA production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons).     123
• Figure 30. TEM image of cellulose nanocrystals. 125
• Figure 31. CNC preparation.        126
• Figure 32. Extracting CNC from trees.      127
• Figure 33. CNC slurry.     129
• Figure 34. CNF gel.           132
• Figure 35. Bacterial nanocellulose shapes              138
• Figure 36. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix.           143
• Figure 37. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam.     146
• Figure 38. Commercial mycelium composite construction materials.          146
• Figure 39. Global production capacities of biobased and sustainable plastics 2020.              149
• Figure 40. Global production capacities of biobased and sustainable plastics 2025.              149
• Figure 41. Global production capacities for biobased and sustainable plastics by end user market 2019-2033, 1,000 tons.      153
• Figure 42. PHA bioplastics products.        155
• Figure 43. The global market for biobased and biodegradable plastics for flexible packaging 2019–2033 (‘000 tonnes).                158
• Figure 44. Bioplastics for rigid packaging, 2019–2033 (‘000 tonnes).          160
• Figure 45. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in consumer products 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons.         161
• Figure 46. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in automotive 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons.      162
• Figure 47. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in building and construction 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons.        163
• Figure 48. AlgiKicks sneaker, made with the Algiknit biopolymer gel.         165
• Figure 49. Reebok's [REE]GROW running shoes. 165
• Figure 50. Camper Runner K21.  166
• Figure 51. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in textiles 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons.                167
• Figure 52. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in electronics 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons.      168
• Figure 53. Biodegradable mulch films.     169
• Figure 54. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in agriculture 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons.      170
• Figure 55. Types of natural fibers.             174
• Figure 56. Absolut natural based fiber bottle cap.              177
• Figure 57. Adidas algae-ink tees.               177
• Figure 58. Carlsberg natural fiber beer bottle.     177
• Figure 59. Miratex watch bands. 177
• Figure 60. Adidas Made with Nature Ultraboost 22.           178
• Figure 61. PUMA RE:SUEDE sneaker        178
• Figure 62. Cotton production volume 2018-2033 (Million MT).     183
• Figure 63. Kapok production volume 2018-2033 (MT).     184
• Figure 64.  Luffa cylindrica fiber. 185
• Figure 65. Jute production volume 2018-2033 (Million MT).          187
• Figure 66. Hemp fiber production volume 2018-2033 ( MT).          189
• Figure 67. Flax fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).               190
• Figure 68. Ramie fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).          192
• Figure 69. Kenaf fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).           193
• Figure 70. Sisal fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).              195
• Figure 71. Abaca fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).          196
• Figure 72. Coir fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MILLION MT).            198
• Figure 73. Banana fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT).        199
• Figure 74. Pineapple fiber.           200
• Figure 75. A bag made with pineapple biomaterial from the H&M Conscious Collection 2019.         201
• Figure 76. Bamboo fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MILLION MT).    205
• Figure 77. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam.     206
• Figure 78. Commercial mycelium composite construction materials.          207
• Figure 79. Frayme Mylo™️.            207
• Figure 80. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix.           210
• Figure 81. Conceptual landscape of next-gen leather materials.   214
• Figure 82. Hemp fibers combined with PP in car door panel.         223
• Figure 83. Car door produced from Hemp fiber.  224
• Figure 84. Mercedes-Benz components containing natural fibers.               225
• Figure 85. Global fiber production in 2022, by fiber type, million MT and %.           232
• Figure 86. Global fiber production (million MT) to 2020-2033.       233
• Figure 87. Plant-based fiber production 2018-2033, by fiber type, MT.     234
• Figure 88. Animal based fiber production 2018-2033, by fiber type, million MT.    235
• Figure 89. High purity lignin.        236
• Figure 90. Lignocellulose architecture.    237
• Figure 91. Extraction processes to separate lignin from lignocellulosic biomass and corresponding technical lignins.                238
• Figure 92. The lignocellulose biorefinery.              243
• Figure 93. LignoBoost process.   249
• Figure 94. LignoForce system for lignin recovery from black liquor.             250
• Figure 95. Sequential liquid-lignin recovery and purification (SLPR) system.           250
• Figure 96. A-Recovery+ chemical recovery concept.          251
• Figure 97.  Schematic of a biorefinery for production of carriers and chemicals.    253
• Figure 98. Organosolv lignin.       255
• Figure 99. Hydrolytic lignin powder.        256
• Figure 100. Estimated consumption of lignin, 2019-2033 (000 MT).            260
• Figure 101. Schematic of WISA plywood home.   262
• Figure 102. Lignin based activated carbon.            269
• Figure 103. Lignin/celluose precursor.     270
• Figure 104. Pluumo.        276
• Figure 105. ANDRITZ Lignin Recovery process.    285
• Figure 106. Anpoly cellulose nanofiber hydrogel.               288
• Figure 107. MEDICELLU™.            289
• Figure 108. Asahi Kasei CNF fabric sheet.               298
• Figure 109. Properties of Asahi Kasei cellulose nanofiber nonwoven fabric.            299
• Figure 110. CNF nonwoven fabric.            300
• Figure 111. Roof frame made of natural fiber.     308
• Figure 112. Beyond Leather Materials product.   312
• Figure 113. BIOLO e-commerce mailer bag made from PHA.          319
• Figure 114. Reusable and recyclable foodservice cups, lids, and straws from Joinease Hong Kong Ltd., made with plant-based NuPlastiQ BioPolymer from BioLogiQ, Inc. 320
• Figure 115. Fiber-based screw cap.           332
• Figure 116. formicobio™ technology.      353
• Figure 117. nanoforest-S.             356
• Figure 118. nanoforest-PDP.       356
• Figure 119. nanoforest-MB.        357
• Figure 120. sunliquid® production process.           365
• Figure 121. CuanSave film.           368
• Figure 122. Celish.           369
• Figure 123. Trunk lid incorporating CNF. 371
• Figure 124. ELLEX products.         372
• Figure 125. CNF-reinforced PP compounds.          373
• Figure 126. Kirekira! toilet wipes.              373
• Figure 127. Color CNF.   374
• Figure 128. Rheocrysta spray.     380
• Figure 129. DKS CNF products.   381
• Figure 130. Domsjö process.       383
• Figure 131. Mushroom leather. 393
• Figure 132. CNF based on citrus peel.      395
• Figure 133. Citrus cellulose nanofiber.    395
• Figure 134. Filler Bank CNC products.      408
• Figure 135. Fibers on kapok tree and after processing.     410
• Figure 136.  TMP-Bio Process.    413
• Figure 137. Flow chart of the lignocellulose biorefinery pilot plant in Leuna.          414
• Figure 138. Water-repellent cellulose.    416
• Figure 139. Cellulose Nanofiber (CNF) composite with polyethylene (PE). 418
• Figure 140. PHA production process.       419
• Figure 141. CNF products from Furukawa Electric.              420
• Figure 142. AVAPTM process.     430
• Figure 143. GreenPower+™ process.       431
• Figure 144. Cutlery samples (spoon, knife, fork) made of nano cellulose and biodegradable plastic composite materials.            434
• Figure 145. Non-aqueous CNF dispersion "Senaf" (Photo shows 5% of plasticizer).              436
• Figure 146. CNF gel.        443
• Figure 147. Block nanocellulose material.              444
• Figure 148. CNF products developed by Hokuetsu.            444
• Figure 149. Marine leather products.      447
• Figure 150. Inner Mettle Milk products. 451
• Figure 151. Kami Shoji CNF products.      464
• Figure 152. Dual Graft System.   466
• Figure 153. Engine cover utilizing Kao CNF composite resins.        467
• Figure 154. Acrylic resin blended with modified CNF (fluid) and its molded product (transparent film), and image obtained with AFM (CNF 10wt% blended).           468
• Figure 155. Kel Labs yarn.             469
• Figure 156. 0.3% aqueous dispersion of sulfated esterified CNF and dried transparent film (front side).     473
• Figure 157. BioFlex process.        485
• Figure 158. Nike Algae Ink graphic tee.   486
• Figure 159. LX Process.  490
• Figure 160. Made of Air's HexChar panels.            493
• Figure 161. TransLeather.             494
• Figure 162. Chitin nanofiber product.      499
• Figure 163. Marusumi Paper cellulose nanofiber products.            501
• Figure 164. FibriMa cellulose nanofiber powder. 502
• Figure 165. METNIN™ Lignin refining technology.              506
• Figure 166. IPA synthesis method.            509
• Figure 167. MOGU-Wave panels.              513
• Figure 168. CNF slurries.                514
• Figure 169. Range of CNF products.          514
• Figure 170. Reishi.           518
• Figure 171. Compostable water pod.       536
• Figure 172. Leather made from leaves.   537
• Figure 173. Nike shoe with beLEAF™.      537
• Figure 174. CNF clear sheets.      547
• Figure 175. Oji Holdings CNF polycarbonate product.       548
• Figure 176. Enfinity cellulosic ethanol technology process.            562
• Figure 177. Fabric consisting of 70 per cent wool and 30 per cent Qmilk. 567
• Figure 178. XCNF.            575
• Figure 179: Plantrose process.    576
• Figure 180. LOVR hemp leather. 579
• Figure 181. CNF insulation flat plates.     582
• Figure 182. Hansa lignin.               589
• Figure 183. Manufacturing process for STARCEL. 593
• Figure 184. Manufacturing process for STARCEL. 597
• Figure 185. 3D printed cellulose shoe.    606
• Figure 186. Lyocell process.         609
• Figure 187. North Face Spiber Moon Parka.          614
• Figure 188. PANGAIA LAB NXT GEN Hoodie.         615
• Figure 189. Spider silk production.            616
• Figure 190. Stora Enso lignin battery materials.   621
• Figure 191. 2 wt.％ CNF suspension.       622
• Figure 192. BiNFi-s Dry Powder. 622
• Figure 193. BiNFi-s Dry Powder and Propylene (PP) Complex Pellet.          623
• Figure 194. Silk nanofiber (right) and cocoon of raw material.       623
• Figure 195. Sulapac cosmetics containers.             625
• Figure 196.  Sulzer equipment for PLA polymerization processing.              626
• Figure 197. Teijin bioplastic film for door handles.             636
• Figure 198. Corbion FDCA production process.    643
• Figure 199. Comparison of weight reduction effect using CNF.     645
• Figure 200. CNF resin products. 649
• Figure 201. UPM biorefinery process.     651
• Figure 202. Vegea production process.   656
• Figure 203. The Proesa® Process.              657
• Figure 204. Goldilocks process and applications. 659
• Figure 205. Visolis’ Hybrid Bio-Thermocatalytic Process. 662
• Figure 206. HefCel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test.     665
• Figure 207. Worn Again products.             669
• Figure 208. Zelfo Technology GmbH CNF production process.       674
• Figure 209. Carbon emissions by sector. 679
• Figure 210. Overview of CCUS market     681
• Figure 211. Pathways for CO2 use.           682
• Figure 212. Regional capacity share 2022-2030.   684
• Figure 213. Global investment in carbon capture 2010-2022, millions USD.            690
• Figure 214. Carbon Capture, Utilization, & Storage (CCUS) Market Map.  692
• Figure 215. CCS deployment projects, historical and to 2035.        693
• Figure 216. Existing and planned CCS projects.    702
• Figure 217. CCUS Value Chain.    702
• Figure 218. Schematic of CCUS process. 704
• Figure 219. Pathways for CO2 utilization and removal.     705
• Figure 220. A pre-combustion capture system.   711
• Figure 221. Carbon dioxide utilization and removal cycle.               715
• Figure 222. Various pathways for CO2 utilization.               716
• Figure 223. Example of underground carbon dioxide storage.       717
• Figure 224. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages.        718
• Figure 225. Applications for CO2.              721
• Figure 226. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector. 721
• Figure 227. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services.         724
• Figure 228. Co2 utilization pathways and products.           727
• Figure 229. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion.           731
• Figure 230. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process.              736
• Figure 231. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels. 737
• Figure 232. Econic catalyst systems.        740
• Figure 233. Mineral carbonation processes.         743
• Figure 234.  Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways.  745
• Figure 235.  Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials   748
• Figure 236. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer.            764
• Figure 237. O12 Reactor.              772
• Figure 238. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials.     772
• Figure 239. CO2 made car part.  773